Motivation – that elusive force that drives us to excel, to push through difficulties, and to achieve our dreams. Our motivation shapes the narrative of our self-concept. It's the driving force behind the choices we make, the identity we forge, and the emotions we feel.
As performers and teachers of music, understanding the dynamics of motivation is key to successful performances and careers. So for the next three posts, I would like to spend some time on the three fundamental elements - the ABCs (a fitting acronym!)- of motivation.
The Stayers and the Quitters
I came across a paper this week that investigated the motivation of elite (classically-trained) musicians and athletes to either persist in their careers or quit - the High Performing Stayers “Stayers” or “Quitters."(1) These were truly world-class performers. The musicians (2 pianists, 2 violinists) had successful international performing careers and the athletes (1 swimmer and 1 skier) had medalled multiple times at the Olympics. To understand why most persisted, and more curiously, why a few chose to give up their careers despite personal investment that would be considered obsessive by most standards, the researchers used the lens of Self Determination Theory (SDT), a theory of motivation that has received a lot of attention in the last two decades.
Self-Determination Theory
SDT posits that humans have three basic psychological needs that must be satisfied for humans to experience psychological well-being: autonomy, belonging, and competence.(2) The degree to which these needs are filled results in the quality of motivation that one has.
The first of these - autonomy - is our drive to be in control of our actions and make independent decisions that are congruent with what is important to us. Autonomy is most directly related to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, concepts researched in the 1970s by Deci and Ryan (3), the developers of SDT.
Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation
ust to clarify, intrinsic motivation is doing something because the person finds it inherently enjoyable and interesting. Extrinsic motivation requires some kind of reward outside the activity itself. This could be something tangible like a monetary reward. Or it could be abstract, such as gaining approval, an ego boost, or avoiding something negative.
Extrinsic motivation - internally or externally controlled
Now, realistically, there are relatively few things we get to do that we are intrinsically motivated for; most activities are in some measure extrinsically motivated. In SDT, extrinsic motivation is broken down (somewhat confusingly, but it makes sense) into being externally or internally controlled. So, in motivation that is completely externally controlled, one is completely dependent on external reward or punishment. In motivation that is somewhat externally controlled, there is involvement of the ego and dependence on the approval of self or others.
Then there is a shift to where extrinsic motivation becomes somewhat internally controlled and the individual considers the activity to be personally important, assigns it value, and endorses goals created around it. And finally, when extrinsic motivation is fully internally controlled, the individual not only aligns with the activity, but there is a consistency with which the individual identifies with it and it is integrated into one’s concept of self. The internally controlled forms of extrinsic motivation provide more autonomy than externally controlled forms.
Individuals can experience these qualities of motivation simultaneously for various activities, and even within music. For example, one may be intrinsically motivated to play music and play for the sheer joy of it. As a side note, it was not surprising for me to learn that musicians have higher levels of intrinsic motivation for what they do than is found in the general population. (4) But practicing music is somewhat different from playing or performing it. Few practice only for the pleasure they get from it. The effortful, often tedious nature of deliberate practice makes it “not inherently enjoyable.”(5)
Children may practice because their allowance depends on it (fully external/extrinsic). Or they may thrive on the praise they receive from others who are important to them (somewhat external).
Moving towards more internally controlled forms of motivation, a music student may understand that practice is an essential means to an end. They practice because becoming better at their craft is important to them (somewhat internal). Further down the motivation spectrum, a performer may find that practicing becomes an essential part of who they are and what they do (internal).
Controlled vs. Autonomous Motivation
For the Stayers and Quitters from the paper mentioned above, it was this quality of motivation - the degree to which their motivation was controlled or autonomous - that determined the trajectory of their careers. The Stayers reported feeling drawn to music at a young age and spent time exploring and creating music of their own volition. The Quitters said their course (i.e., violin, swimming) was decided for them by a parent and coach or teacher because they were good at it. They didn’t talk about these activities as inherently satisfying, but they did satisfy the Quitters need for competence:
“I thought it was cool and fun that I managed to obtain some medals and so, but I cannot say that I enjoyed what I was doing. The training was a continuous hassle, even though it gave some good results.”
But it wasn’t enough in the end:
“I basically played the music very well, but so did a lot of other performers as well. After a while things stabilized and I had a high level, but this did not matter that much because I really did not enjoy performing, it did not give me that pleasure [. . .]
It’s amazing to me that they had the grit to persevere to reach the pinnacles they did! It shows the power that extrinsic motivation can have and how their performance achievements satisfy their need for competence.
The Stayers showed a mix of internally controlled motivation, with intrinsic motivation shining through:
“I have always been very disciplined before important concerts and I try to avoid coffee, I also like to nap for a few hours. All the practice before going on stage might not always be that fun, however, when meeting the orchestra and the conductor, everything falls into place. I could not imagine living without being able to perform music, it is greater than life.”
Intrinsic motivation even showed up in the hard work of preparation:
“I love to find new ways of training for becoming even more efficient and physically fit. Growing older, you need to find new ways of maintaining your level of performance. I find this very interesting and exciting.”
Need for Autonomy
Though the Quitters’ satisfied need for competence kept them going as long as it did, it wasn’t enough. The most crucial ingredient that determined whether the performers persisted or not was whether their need for autonomy was supported. In the early stages, the Quitters' need for autonomy was thwarted in many areas: their involvement in their practice routines, in the relationships with the people in the field they related to, and, most importantly, the choice of what they pursued. The psychological toll of that external control was too great in the end.
This study was unique in that it revealed how controlled motivation could not ultimately sustain careers for those who were at the top of their game. Many more studies show that high-level performers who function only under controlled motivation pay a price. These performers tend to be more maladaptively perfectionistic, more vulnerable to performance anxiety and stress and are less able to cope in helpful ways.(6) Performers whose autonomy is supported are more likely to experience psychological well-being and flow - that state of being completely absorbed in the activity that feels effortless - which in turn, is associated with peak performance.(7)
Autonomy for the professional musician
Professional musicians are generally able to exercise a great deal of control because their work tends to be largely self-directed. However, it’s possible to feel trapped in a particular job that is not supportive of autonomy. For example, orchestras may have leadership that has a very “top-down” approach with limited collaboration. This can lead to demotivation in players and even a deflated morale of the entire orchestra. It is helpful for musicians to acknowledge the source of this so they can find ways to reconcile with the situation.
The particular gigs one chooses to play can support or demote our autonomy. Although we have to earn a living and be somewhat pragmatic about it, we also need to invest enough time into projects that align with what we value.
Creating a motivational climate that supports autonomy
For professional musicians who are also teachers, how can we promote a motivational climate in which autonomy is supported and our students can thrive?
In earlier stages of musical development, it’s wise for parents and teachers to support the child’s exploration and creativity and refrain from leading them strongly in one way or the other for personal or pragmatic reasons.
Some have observed that one way to foster students' autonomy is to provide them access to more than one teacher for feedback.(8) Students may decide they would like to explore a different genre with someone who has more expertise in the area. Or they may just want to gain another perspective on interpretation. Students are then more empowered to make choices when they are encouraged to thoughtfully consider what they might be.
The typical master-apprentice model in Western classical music learning is teacher-dominated with little room for student input. This is not to say that lessons should lack structure or should just be easy and fun. This would undermine another motivational ingredient, competence, which requires learning to be optimally challenging. But as a teacher, you can be mindful of how you might involve their students, such as structuring practice activities and eliciting ideas for interpretation. You can pay attention to how much talking you are doing compared to your student. Even recording a session or two can offer some objectivity into how you may be coming across to your student, perhaps as heavy-handed or devaluing their input (however unintentional). Making sure you are approachable helps students feel comfortable coming to you with questions and ideas.
Here are some suggestions from Evan's review of SDT and music education: (9)
Explain why you are asking students to do particular things, such as sight-reading practice or technical work
Allow students the space to express their feelings, such as anxiety about performing and acknowledge these feelings
Give students choice - in repertoire and other activities that support learning (but not so much so as not to overwhelm and undermine competence)
Help students create practice goals that have meaning for them
Foster their curiosity and individuality by allowing time for composition and improvisation
So whether you are teaching, performing, or practicing, I hope you’ve found some ways to turn the dial away from external motivators to those that are more self-determined. Being empowered to make choices that align with who one is and what one values, not only sustains music-making but makes for happier, more fulfilled musicians.
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1.Hatfield, J. L. (2023). Determinants of motivation in world-class musicians and Olympic athletes: Exploring the front and the back side of the medallion. Psychology of Music, 30573562311559-. https://doi.org/10.1177/03057356231155973
2. Ryan R. M., Deci E. L. (2002). Overview of self-determination theory: An organismic dialectical perspective. In Deci E. L., Ryan R. M. (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3–33). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
3. Deci E. L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18, 105–115.
4. MacIntyre, P. D., Schnare, B., & Ross, J. (2018). Self-determination theory and motivation for music. Psychology of Music, 46(5), 699–715. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735617721637
5. Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363–406. https://doi. org/10.1037/0033-295X.87.3.215.
6. Haraldsen, H. M., Nordin-Bates, S. M., Abrahamsen, F. E., & Halvari, H. (2020). Thriving, Striving, or Just Surviving? TD Learning Conditions, Motivational Processes and Well-Being Among Norwegian Elite Performers in Music, Ballet, and Sport. Roeper Review, 42(2), 109–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/02783193.2020.1728796
7. Valenzuela, R., Codina, N., & Pestana,J. V. (2018). Self-determination theory applied to flow in conservatoire music practice: The roles of perceived autonomy and competence, and autonomous and controlled motivation. Psychology of Music, 46(1), 33–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735617694502
8. Gaunt H. (2011). Understanding the one-to-one relationship in instrumental/vocal tuition in higher education: Comparing student and teacher perceptions. British Journal of Music Education, 28, 159–179.
9. Evans, P. (2015). Self-determination theory: An approach to motivation in music education. Musicae Scientiae, 19(1), 65–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/1029864914568044
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